The Athlete · Track & Field · Women's Hurdles

Women's hurdles — both the 100m and 400m events — demand a precise collision of sprint speed, hip mobility, and rhythmic precision that separates them from every other track discipline. This article quantifies that demand: what body produces elite performance, what movement signature defines the event, what the science says about the kinematic and muscular levers that determine outcomes, and exactly how an athlete at any developmental tier — from youth to professional — should train. The benchmark data in §3 gives hurdlers a concrete target; the prescription tables in §2 build the physical foundation to reach it.

§1 — The Athlete, Painted

Physical Archetype

The elite female hurdler occupies a well-defined morphological window. World Athletics biomechanical analysis of the 2017 World Championships women's 100m hurdles final documented a mean stature of 1.68 ± 0.04 m across the eight finalists — tall enough to clear the 0.838 m (2'9") barrier without excessive vertical lift, but not so tall that hip mobility is taxed by extreme limb length. Body mass for elite short hurdlers typically ranges from 58–66 kg; the 400m hurdler tends to run 60–68 kg given the aerobic muscle base required to sustain pace for 10 barriers over a full lap.

Body composition data for collegiate sprint/hurdle athletes shows average total muscle mass of 44.0 ± 4.1 kg and percent body fat around 20.0 ± 2.7%, while elite-level athletes trend toward 16–19% body fat and correspondingly higher lean mass. The ratio of relative hurdle height to stature matters: the 0.838 m hurdle represents approximately 49.9% of mean stature for the world-class women studied — significantly lower than the 57.1% ratio men face — which means the female hurdler's physical advantage lies not in clearing height but in maximizing horizontal velocity through the barriers.

Leg length relative to trunk is a selection factor. Longer femoral and tibial segments reduce the relative clearance demand and allow longer inter-hurdle strides; research on hurdler anthropometrics consistently identifies longer limbs with slightly longer trunks as characteristic of successful hurdlers relative to flat sprinters of comparable height. The trail leg's hip joint range of motion is the key anatomical differentiator: restricted hip abduction or internal rotation at the trail hip forces compensatory lateral trunk lean, disrupting the forward momentum that defines the event.

Movement Archetype

Women's hurdles is not three strides and a jump. It is a continuous four-step sprint cycle with 10 modified strides embedded in it. The kinematic signature differs from flat sprint running in every ground contact before and after each barrier.

At the 100m hurdles, athletes complete 8 strides to the first hurdle (13.00 m), clear 10 barriers spaced 8.50 m apart, and sprint 10.50 m to the finish. Between hurdles, three sprint strides (landing step, recovery step, preparatory step) return the athlete to the take-off position. At world-class level, inter-hurdle velocity peaks around 8.74–8.75 m/s between hurdles 2 through 5 (McDonald & Dapena 1991; cited in race pattern analyses), with velocity decline from hurdle 6 to hurdle 10 averaging 4.5–6.9% in Olympic finals.

The hurdle step itself is mechanically distinct. Hanley et al. (2021) documented mean hurdle step lengths of 3.16 ± 0.11 m for world-class women (versus 3.80 ± 0.13 m for men), with clearance time of 0.28 ± 0.02 s. Take-off distance for elite women averages 2.08–2.23 m from the hurdle; landing distance averages 0.80–1.00 m on the far side. The center of mass (CM) parabola peaks approximately 0.30 m before the hurdle in women — a fundamental sex difference that is not a flaw but a biomechanical strategy. Women who attempt to imitate men's take-off positions and clearance arcs will lengthen the hurdle step and shorten the airborne phase below the minimum needed for the legs to complete their over-hurdle repositioning.

In the 400m event, stride pattern is rhythmically distinct: most elite women take 13 strides between hurdles through the first six barriers, shifting to 15 strides in the later stages as fatigue accumulates. The shift adds a full step and forces a lead-leg change, demanding bilateral hurdle technique — a motor skill separating D1 athletes from pros.

Speed output (the primary 8-Core anchor) and hip mobility (secondary anchor) combine as the event's irreducible physical demands. No amount of technical refinement compensates for an athlete whose 30m fly time is 3–4 tenths behind her peer group.

Mental Archetype

The hurdler's cognitive load is structurally unique in track. Every race contains 10 mandatory decision-execution events — each barrier — embedded in an otherwise automatic sprint. Any interruption to the rhythm pattern (a stumble, a wind gust, a hurdle contact) creates an immediate attentional cascade: the athlete must self-correct mid-race without the benefit of stopping.

Research on mental preparation for competitive sprinting identifies rhythm regulation as the primary psychological tool for track athletes (Cruickshank et al., 2015). For hurdlers, auditory and kinesthetic rhythm cues ("footfall cadence," "cadence count," rhythm words at each stride) allow automatic execution of the hurdle step without conscious monitoring — which research confirms disrupts proceduralised motor programs when activated mid-performance. A meta-analysis of attentional focus in sprinting (n = 166 participants) found that external focus of attention produced a meaningful small positive effect on sprint performance (g = 0.279, p = 0.004) compared to internal focus, indicating that performance-oriented cues outperform body-monitoring cues — a finding directly relevant to hurdling, where internal focus on stride mechanics is a common coaching error.

Emotional regulation under lane pressure, delayed starts, and heat-round scheduling across multi-day competitions adds a sustained arousal management demand beyond what flat sprinters face. The elite hurdler must maintain neuromuscular readiness across multiple races within a 24–48 hour window while recalibrating race plans when competitors set unexpected lead-out paces in the 400m hurdles.

§2 — The 4 Pillars × 5 Segments × 4 Seasons Grid

Pillar 1: Strength & Power

Segment	Off-Season	Pre-Season	In-Season	Post-Season
Youth (8–12)	Bodyweight movements 3×/wk; squat, lunge, push-up progressions; no external load above bodyweight	Add light medicine ball throws 2×/wk; single-leg balance work; hurdle step-overs at walk pace	Maintain 2×/wk general strength; no maximal loading; hurdle mobility drills	Active rest 3–4 wk; introduce gymnastics-style hip flexibility work
Middle School (13–14)	Barbell introduction at 40–50% 1RM; trap bar deadlift, goblet squat 3×/wk; CMJ baseline test	Rear-foot-elevated split squats, Nordic hamstring curl intro; power cleans at 50–60% 3×/wk	2×/wk, 60–70% 1RM compound lifts; hip thrust for glute/posterior chain; CMJ check monthly	Deload 2 wk; hip flexor/adductor lengthening priority
High School (15–18)	3×/wk, 70–80% 1RM; back squat, RDL, hip thrust; power clean 3×6 @ 60–70%; CMJ logged	Contrast training (heavy squat + max-effort broad jump); plyometric hurdle hops; 75–85% 1RM	2×/wk, 75–80% 1RM; maintain strength without fatigue accumulation; force-plate CMJ bi-weekly	3–4 wk deload; general hypertrophy phase at 60–70% 1RM
College (D3–D1 / NAIA / JUCO)	4×/wk periodized block; max strength phase (85–92% 1RM) Oct–Nov; power phase (55–65% 1RM, accommodating resistance) Dec–Jan	Triphasic loading; depth jumps; Spanish squats; RFD-focused sessions; CMJ and RSI tested	2×/wk maintenance; reactive strength index tracked; no new strength stimuli within 72 hr of competition	Force-plate debrief; address asymmetries; 4–6 wk hypertrophy rebuild
Pro / Elite	Individualized annual plan with licensed S&C; 3–4 strength sessions wk⁻¹ in base; taper to 1–2 wk⁻¹ near championships; weekly force-plate CMJ monitoring	Peaking block: French contrast method; post-activation potentiation protocols; sprinting and strength within 24 hr	1–2 maintenance sessions; force-plate RSI and CMJ flight time used to autoregulate; priority is freshness	Complete strength debrief; corrective work for the injury that didn't happen; 4–6 wk off

Pillar 2: Speed & Agility

Segment	Off-Season	Pre-Season	In-Season	Post-Season
Youth (8–12)	General sprint ABCs; A-skip, B-skip, arm swing; 2×/wk; 30–40 m repeats at 85–90% effort	Introduce hurdle walk-overs and step-overs; 3-stride rhythm drills at sub-max; no spikes	20–30 m fly-in sprints 1–2×/wk; hurdle lead-leg drill, trail-leg drill in isolation	Free play; shuttle runs; general athleticism
Middle School (13–14)	Sprint mechanics emphasis: shin angle, front-side mechanics, dorsiflexion; wicket runs; 3×/wk	Flying 30s 2×/wk at 90–95%; introductory hurdle rhythm with walk-up approach; reaction work off starting commands	Acceleration from blocks 2×/wk (4–6 reps × 30 m); hurdle approach rhythm maintained; no max-velocity volumes >150 m/session	Technique correction; video review; 2×/wk sprint maintenance
High School (15–18)	Flying 30s and 60s; block starts 2×/wk; 3-stride pattern between hurdles drilled without barriers; 30m fly time baseline	Full race segments at 90–95%: approach to H1, H1–H3; race-pace hurdle rhythm; flying 20s for max velocity	1–2 speed sessions wk⁻¹; race-pace rehearsal with full hurdle setup; maintain 30m fly benchmarks	2 wk complete speed rest; restorative sprint drills only
College (D3–D1 / NAIA / JUCO)	Oct–Dec: acceleration mechanics; max velocity development (flying 30–60 m); 400mH athletes add 300 m race-pace reps	Jan–Mar: full-speed hurdle rehearsal; 400mH stride-pattern drilling (13-stride rhythm); electronic timing on 10m splits	Race-specific sessions twice wk⁻¹ max; hurdle rhythm maintenance; 400mH athletes monitor velocity at hurdle 8–10	Address bilateral hurdle technique deficits; speed endurance base for 400mH
Pro / Elite	Extensive speed volume in Oct–Dec (>1,200 m/wk at >85% effort); GPS or electronic timing every session	Full-race rehearsal at 98–100%; split-time analysis H1–H10; bilateral technique polished; reactive agility in 400mH pacing	Race management work; hurdle contact response drills; 400mH athletes practice stride-count transitions H6–H10	Complete velocity audit; compare pre-season and in-season 30m fly; target gaps

Pillar 3: Endurance & Conditioning

Segment	Off-Season	Pre-Season	In-Season	Post-Season
Youth (8–12)	Aerobic base: 15–25 min continuous running 3×/wk; no structured intervals; fun-based conditioning	Intro tempo runs: 4–6 × 100 m at 70%; active recovery; 20 min continuous 2×/wk	Maintain 2×/wk aerobic; no lactic sessions in youth; cool-down jogs after practice	Unstructured activity 3–4 wk; swimming or cycling for active recovery
Middle School (13–14)	25–35 min aerobic base 3×/wk; 200 m tempo reps 6–8 × at 70–75%; introduce lactate threshold concept	Tempo ladder: 4 × 200 m + 2 × 300 m at 75–80%; lactate tolerance intro with 2 × 300 m at 85%	2×/wk conditioning; emphasis on race-pace intervals (100–200 m); no volume overload during competition weeks	Easy running 2–3 wk; flexibility-focused recovery
High School (15–18)	Aerobic foundation: 30–40 min 3×/wk; extensive tempo 8–10 × 200 m at 70–75%; prepare lactate base	Intensive tempo 2×/wk: 5–6 × 200 m at 85–88%; 2–3 × 300 m at race pace for 400mH; VO₂ max sessions once/wk	Race-specific conditioning: 100mH athletes 2–3 × 150 m at 95%; 400mH athletes 2–3 × 300 m race-pace; HRV monitoring begins	3–4 wk aerobic flush; easy continuous runs 25–35 min daily
College (D3–D1 / NAIA / JUCO)	Aerobic base Oct–Nov; 400mH athletes run 6–8 × 300 m at 80%; 100mH athletes maintain sprint endurance with 3–4 × 150 m at 90%	Lactate tolerance: 400mH 3–4 × 350 m at 95%; 100mH specific endurance 4–5 × 120 m hurdles at 90%; VO₂ testing	Competition period: aerobic maintenance only (2 × 30 min tempo); lactic sessions reduced to 1×/wk; HRV and subjective wellness tracked	VO₂ assessment; aerobic rebuild 4–6 wk; address any RED-S indicators
Pro / Elite	Extensive aerobic base (400mH athletes run 48–60 km/wk tempo equivalent in Oct); 100mH athletes complete sprint endurance blocks	Race simulation: full-race efforts 1×/wk; 400mH athletes run 300–350 m at target race pace; metabolic testing	Minimal conditioning volume; aerobic quality > aerobic quantity; recovery monitoring via HRV, sleep, and force-plate readiness	Full off-season debrief; blood panels; VO₂ and lactate testing to set next year's base targets

Pillar 4: Skill & Sport-IQ

Segment	Off-Season	Pre-Season	In-Season	Post-Season
Youth (8–12)	Hurdle walk-overs, step-overs; lead leg and trail leg drilled separately; no competitive race setups	3-stride rhythm between mini hurdles (6-inch height); approach run count emphasized; basic block start intro	Simple race rehearsals at full hurdle height; reinforce rhythm count; no over-coaching of arm mechanics	Video review at 1 race/season; identify one technical focus for next year
Middle School (13–14)	Lead leg attack angle drilled; trail leg hip circle introduced; trunk lean and arm mechanics isolated; 100mH only	Approach phase (H1–H3) at race pace; trail leg clearance over full-height hurdles; takeoff distance zone (1.95–2.10 m) marked	Weekly video review; reinforce takeoff distance discipline; one technical cue per race week	Bilateral hurdle technique introduction; trail leg from opposite lead; film side-by-side
High School (15–18)	Full race technical rehearsal both 100mH and 400mH; takeoff and landing distances marked; deviation angle coaching; video every session	Race-phase periodization: H1–H5 technical block, H6–H10 endurance-phase technique; 400mH stride-count introduction	Race film analysis every meet; one correction per meet cycle; 400mH athletes practice stride-pattern transitions under fatigue	Technical inventory: lead leg, trail leg, trunk, arm mechanics scored; set 2 technical targets for next season
College (D3–D1 / NAIA / JUCO)	Precision hurdle work: take-off zone (marked), flight time target (0.26–0.30 s), landing zone (0.80–1.00 m); force plate takeoff analysis	Rhythm drilling under fatigue; 400mH bilateral technique under 95% effort; hurdle contact response drill (brush drill)	Video-every-race policy; contact-point analysis; deviation angle (lead leg take-off; target: 60–67°); biomechanical feedback within 24 hr	Full biomechanical audit; 3D kinematics if available; match current technique to benchmark data in §3
Pro / Elite	Full technical deconstruction with 3D kinematics if available; individual deviation angle and takeoff distance targets set; all cues evidence-based	Race simulation with video overlay; split-time goals per hurdle unit; 400mH pace distribution practice (equal-split vs. negative-split strategy)	In-competition debrief within 2 hr; minimal technique changes in-season; only cue-word adjustments to automate corrections	Comprehensive kinematic review; compare to pre-season baseline; rebuild technique targets for next training year

§3 — Position-Specific Numbers (3 Tiers)

Women's 100m Hurdles

Metric	Average D1	Top 10% D1	Pro Baseline
100m H Race Time	13.50–14.10 s	12.90–13.30 s	≤12.78 s (USATF Worlds standard)
30m Fly Time	3.05–3.20 s	2.90–3.00 s	≤2.82 s
CMJ Height (Victevo 8-Core)	38–43 cm	44–49 cm	≥50 cm
Force Plate — Peak Propulsive Force	1.8–2.1 × BW	2.1–2.4 × BW	≥2.4 × BW
Reactive Agility (5-0-5 or equiv.)	2.45–2.60 s	2.30–2.44 s	≤2.28 s
Grip / Iso Strength (relative)	0.45–0.55 N·kg⁻¹	0.55–0.65 N·kg⁻¹	≥0.65 N·kg⁻¹
Aerobic Capacity (VO₂ max, mL·kg⁻¹·min⁻¹)	48–54	55–60	≥60
Sport-Skill Composite — Take-off Distance	1.90–2.05 m	2.06–2.15 m	2.08–2.23 m (Victevo editorial target — derived from Hanley et al. 2021)
Recovery/HRV (rMSSD, ms)	45–65	65–80	≥75
Hurdle Clearance Time (flight)	0.30–0.34 s	0.28–0.30 s	≤0.28 s (Victevo editorial target — derived from Hanley et al. 2021)
Deviation Angle at Take-off	55–63°	63–67°	63–67° (Victevo editorial target — derived from World Athletics 2017 Biomechanical Report)

Women's 400m Hurdles

Metric	Average D1	Top 10% D1	Pro Baseline
400m H Race Time	57.00–61.50 s	54.90–57.00 s	≤54.85 s (World Athletics Paris 2024 standard)
Flat 400m Time	54.0–57.0 s	51.5–53.5 s	≤51.0 s
CMJ Height (Victevo 8-Core)	36–41 cm	42–47 cm	≥48 cm
Force Plate — Reactive Strength Index	1.6–1.9	1.9–2.2	≥2.2
Reactive Agility	2.50–2.65 s	2.35–2.49 s	≤2.33 s
Aerobic Capacity (VO₂ max)	54–60	61–66	≥65
Sport-Skill Composite — Stride Count H1–H5	15-stride pattern	13-stride pattern	13-stride H1–H6; transition ≤H7
Sport-Skill Composite — Late-Race Velocity Maintenance	6–9% decline H6–H10	4–6% decline	≤4.5% decline (Victevo editorial target — derived from race pattern analyses)
Recovery/HRV	50–68 ms	68–82 ms	≥75 ms

Race time standards sourced from USATF 2025 Championships qualifying standards, World Athletics Paris 2024 entry standards, and college recruiting range data. CMJ and force plate targets are Victevo 8-Core Testing benchmarks derived from Philpott et al. (2021) for elite female sprinters (mean CMJ = 0.371 ± 0.049 m, ~37 cm) and adjusted upward for hurdler explosive-strength demands.

§4 — Medical & Scientific Anchors

1. Hurdle Clearance Biomechanics: Take-off Distance and Horizontal Velocity

Hanley, Walker, Paradisis, Merlino, & Bissas (2021) — Frontiers in Sports and Active Living analyzed the eight finalists from both the women's 100m and men's 110m hurdles at the 2017 World Athletics Championships using four high-speed cameras at 150 Hz. They found that world-class women take off farther from the hurdle relative to hurdle height than men (p < 0.001, d = 3.64), producing a lower and more efficient center-of-mass (CM) flight parabola, shorter clearance time (0.28 ± 0.02 s vs. 0.33 ± 0.02 s for men), and minimal vertical CM oscillation during the stance phases surrounding the hurdle. Take-off distance for world-class women averaged 2.08–2.23 m with a take-off-to-total-hurdle-step ratio of 66:34 (vs. 59:41 for men). The training implication is concrete: athletes and coaches should not attempt to emulate men's flatter clearance arcs; instead, they should drill take-off distance discipline (2.08–2.23 m zone) and minimize vertical force application at take-off, preserving horizontal velocity through the barrier.

McDonald & Dapena (1991) — Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise filmed nine female hurdlers using 3D methods at the 1988 US Olympic Trials and documented that the CM parabola peak for women occurs approximately 0.30 m before the hurdle — a reliable biomechanical pattern absent in men. This "early peak" architecture means the descent phase of the CM begins before the athlete reaches the hurdle, allowing a faster landing step and quicker re-acceleration. Coaches who instruct female hurdlers to peak the CM directly over the hurdle (as is appropriate for men) will produce unnecessarily long airborne phases and delayed recovery strides. This finding is foundational to all women's 100m hurdles technical instruction: the clearance arc should be coached as event-specific, not a simplified version of the men's event.

2. Hip Flexor Muscle Volume and Sprint Performance in Elite Female Athletes

Miller, Balshaw, Massey et al. (2022) — Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise compared lower body muscle volumes and vertical jump power between elite (mean 100m PB: 11.14 ± 0.04 s) and subelite (mean 100m PB: 11.69 ± 0.30 s) female sprinters using MRI volumetry. Elite sprinters had 28% greater absolute hip flexor volume and 19% greater relative hip flexor volume than subelite. Crucially, relative hip flexor volume alone explained 47.5% of the variance in sprint performance. The total relative lower body muscle volume was 15% higher in elite athletes, with hip extensors (+22% absolute) and knee extensors (+21% absolute) also significantly elevated. For the female hurdler, these findings directly address the lead leg attack: rapid hip flexion during the swing phase is the primary mechanical driver of hurdle clearance speed. Athletes with underdeveloped iliopsoas, sartorius, and tensor fasciae latae relative to body mass will show delayed lead-leg drive, higher clearance times, and elevated braking impulses at landing. Programming should include hip flexor-specific strength work (resisted knee drive, cable hip flexion, banded sprint drills) throughout the annual plan.

3. Governing Body: USATF Performance Standards

USATF and World Athletics publish tiered standards for the women's 100m and 400m hurdles that define the performance gap between developmental and professional levels. The 2025 USATF National Championships qualifying standard is 12.78 s for the 100m hurdles and 56.00 s for the 400m hurdles. The World Athletics qualification standard for the 2024 Paris Olympics was 12.77 s (100mH) and 54.85 s (400mH). The 100m hurdles world record of 12.12 s was set by Tobi Amusan (Nigeria) at the 2022 World Athletics Championships, while the 400m hurdles world record of 50.37 s was set by Sydney McLaughlin-Levrone at the 2024 Paris Olympics. These reference points quantify the professional ceiling and allow coaches to calibrate program targets at each developmental tier against a real, measurable hierarchy rather than subjective estimates.

4. Victevo 8-Core Data Anchor

Victevo 8-Core Testing integrates sprint (30m fly), CMJ, force plate (peak propulsive force and RSI), reactive agility, grip/iso strength, aerobic capacity, sport-skill composite, and recovery/HRV into a single testing battery. For the female hurdler, the 8-Core exposes the specific physical bottlenecks that slow race time. A CMJ below 38 cm with adequate race speed indicates insufficient reactive strength — clearance is being achieved through extra hip height rather than spring stiffness, adding flight time. A force plate RSI below 1.6 combined with slow reactive agility indicates ground contact times between hurdles are too long, compressing the inter-hurdle stride window. The sport-skill composite captures take-off zone consistency and clearance time under fatigue, the metrics that differentiate coached athletes from self-trained ones. Testing should occur four times per year: post-off-season, pre-competition, mid-season, and post-season, with 8-Core results used to calibrate strength and plyometric loading in the subsequent training block.

§5 — The Gap, Measured

The Victevo Method applied to the female hurdler follows a six-step process that converts test data into training action.

1. Measure. Run the full Victevo 8-Core battery: 30m fly (electronic timing), CMJ height and force plate metrics, reactive agility (5-0-5 or laser-gate equivalent), grip strength, VO₂ max or 1,500m time trial, hurdle-specific sport-skill composite (take-off distance, clearance time at hurdle 5), and morning HRV over a 2-week baseline. This produces a quantified performance profile, not a subjective coach evaluation.

2. Compare. Map results against the three-tier benchmark table in §3 — Average D1, Top 10% D1, Pro Baseline. An athlete running 13.65 s in the 100m hurdles with a CMJ of 36 cm and a take-off distance of 1.82 m sits in the sub-D1 band. A athlete running 13.10 s with a CMJ of 45 cm but a take-off distance of 1.88 m has the physical engine but a technique gap.

3. Identify the gap. Name it precisely. A 7 cm CMJ deficit below Top 10% D1 is a reactive strength gap. A take-off distance averaging 1.88 m rather than 2.08–2.23 m is a rhythm-approach gap. A late-race velocity decline of 9% (hurdle 6 to 10) on the 400mH versus the 4.5% pro baseline is a speed endurance gap. These are not opinions — they are measurable deltas with specific training prescriptions.

4. Build the plan. Select the two highest-leverage pillars based on the gap analysis. A CMJ-deficient athlete prioritizes Strength & Power (contrast training, depth jumps, French contrast) and Speed & Agility (resisted sprint work, block starts). A technique-deficient athlete prioritizes Skill & Sport-IQ (take-off zone drills, video every session, deviation angle coaching).

5. Use real equipment and testing. Victevo 8-Core Testing requires a force plate (for CMJ and RSI), electronic timing gates (30m fly and reactive agility), and calibrated video (take-off distance, clearance time). These are standard in D1 programs and increasingly available at the high school level. Without measurement, programming is guesswork.

6. Re-measure and prove. Repeat the 8-Core at the four prescribed testing windows each year. The only valid claim that a training intervention worked is that the test number moved in the right direction by a meaningful magnitude. If it did not, the plan changes. The gap does not close through belief; it closes through sequenced, measured work.

See the Victevo Method → | See the 8-Core →

Sources

Hanley B, Walker J, Paradisis GP, Merlino S, Bissas A. Biomechanics of World-Class Men and Women Hurdlers. Frontiers in Sports and Active Living. 2021 Jul 8. https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC8298023/
McDonald C, Dapena J. Linear kinematics of the men's 110-m and women's 100-m hurdles races. Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise. 1991. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/1798381/
Miller R, Balshaw TG, Massey GJ, et al. The Muscle Morphology of Elite Female Sprint Running. Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise. 2022 Sep 27. https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC9671592/
Salo A, Grimshaw PN, Marar L. 3-D biomechanical analysis of sprint hurdles at different competitive levels. Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise. 1997 Feb 20. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/9044228/
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